Developing Inter-Asian Studies through the framework of Low-End Globalization
University Archive 3
This was an essay for my favorite class in University. Hands down. It was about Inter-Asian studies and took a much more anthropological lens than I expected for what was technically a literature course. I had so much freedom to explore my own essay with a topic as broad as “What do you think the future of this area of study should be” and the theory and methodology were top tier. Professor was absolutely incredible, and she was also my supervisor for my dissertation.
Introduction
The dynamics of connections across Asia and by extension the field of Inter-Asian studies is one that is multifaceted and complex. The field has been explored through both an economic framework to understand the development of Asia, and a literary framework in order to understand shared histories and communities. There are also multiple historical and social connections to be explored, resulting in a field of study that is incredibly nuanced. Using these methods in tandem is helpful in uncovering aspects of Asia and its history and development, however as modernization creates a more global world, the field of Inter-Asian studies should shift its focus to a method of engagement that assesses Asia both anthropologically and economically. In order to achieve this holistic approach to Inter-Asian studies, I believe it pertinent to look at Gordon Matthews theory of “Low End Globalization”, and specifically the environments and communities generated from this form of interaction [1]. Matthews defines Low-End Globalization as “the transnational flow of people and goods involving relatively small amounts of capitol and informal, sometimes quasi-legal or illegal transactions” [2]. Through the assessment of these types of transactions, he argues that we can look at Chungking Mansions as a place with connections to “an array of nodes around the world”, and specifically, as a place that functions as a bridge between South Asia and the Middle East, and East Asia [3].
He also goes on to note that these transactions are commonly associated with the developing world, and especially in the context of Chungking Mansions, the relation between South Asia and the more developed East Asia. Wong Kar-Wai’s Nineteen Ninety-Four film Chungking Express explores this very method of globalization in one of its major hotspots, Hong Kong’s Chungking Mansions. Inter-Asian studies has shown a great deal of concern for the results of large scale, intercontinental trade across Asia and the west, specifically through the study of port cities like Canton and the literature produced under the conditions allowed from said trade.
In this essay I argue that the economic conditions shown in Chungking Express and the propagation of low-end trade allows for a more nuanced understanding of connections between developing countries in Asia with major manufacturers, and that the understanding of ethnographies that centre Low-End Globalization allows for the identification of and engagement with multicultural sects of society on a smaller, more intimate scale than traditional globalization. Therefore, the future direction of Inter-Asian studies should be rooted in the exploration of areas of Low-End Globalization across Asia, and the paradoxical nature of their place in both a local, and global environment. Low-End Globalization follows the initial studies of port cities like Canton and authors such as Ghosh, expanding on the ideas of trade influencing culture but on a micro scale, in an environment such as Chungking Mansions. Furthermore, that said engagement will remove a large degree of western influence that occurs when assessing globalization on a macro scale. I will argue that the study of Low-End Globalization is the natural progression of Inter-Asian studies, not only based on the merits of a comprehensive approach to Asia, but also as a progression from previous study of Inter-Asian studies that are focused on trade and larger scale globalization.
Low-End Globalization allows for exploration of both economic and anthropological connections.
Chungking Express is an anthology film that follows the lives of two policeman as they pursue new relationships inside the real-life Chungking Mansions. The film is just as much about the journey of the protagonists as much as it is about the narrative space that they occupy. Since said space is analogous to reality, one can reasonably assume that the film is representative of the real environment the film mirrors. Throughout the opening shots of the film, we see the types of trade indicative of Low-End Globalization, namely electronics and mobile phones. Mathews mentions that a large degree of the electronics supplied in Chungking Mansions are made in China, and it’s the distance as well as the ease of transport between the two that facilitate a large degree of the economic trade in Chungking Mansions [4]. The existence of said trade shops serves to illustrate the importance of China as an economic centre both in Asia and on the world stage, as the reselling of electronics as a means to gain capital is only possible due to China’s proximity to Hong Kong [5]. All of the characters in the film, especially in the second story, are tied together in some way through economic means, most notably the Midnight Express Snack Bar, a late-night diner inspired food stall in the heart of Chungking Mansions [6]. This stand is a place of connection; where in the first story He Qi Wu tries to reach out to May in order to restore their connection, and in the second story where No. 663 meets and forms a relationship with Faye. Trade and economy is a vehicle for this anthropological connection. Gordon Mathews argues that, from an anthropological perspective, Low-End Globalization is good at assessing these social realities due to the fact that this Low-End trade takes place through the medium of cash, which forces human to human interaction [7].
Chungking Express engages with the physical space of Chungking Mansions by extrapolating a social reality from a real-life, physical space. Chungking Mansions in the film is a representation of the film’s overall themes. One of the central themes of the film is the idea of connection, something that is again, shared by the physical space of the film. There is a repetition of the line “we were only 0.01 cm apart” when He Qi Wu is referring to either one of his love interests [8]. This line functions twofold, as not only is it a comment on their actual proximity, but it is also evocative of the impossibly intermingled world of Chungking Mansions. The constriction of space that is present in the Mansion and its overpopulation of residence can result in meaningful social connections. The most intimate connections can come from the most unlikely places, something that can only be understood through the continued study of Low-End Globalization. Gordon Matthews notes that areas that experience this overcrowding, from asylum seekers, business owners and tourists existing in the same residential space, undergo “time-space compression” [9]. The limitations of the space become irrelevant when considering the structures or hierarchies present in the residence. Furthermore, the films genre is also a factor in the films layered interpretation. As Ackbar mentions, the films idiosyncratic take on the romantic comedy genre, complete with its urban edge and heterogeneous nature, is emblematic of the microcosm in which the film takes place. Its “specificity to Hong Kong” existing alongside it’s “never before seen nature” is evocative of Hong Kong’s place as a global city, but the unique form of Low-End Globalization that takes place in Chungking Mansions [10].
Low-End Globalization illustrates the importance of the local in reference to Hong Kong’s place in a global economy.
The film also addresses the pervasive Western globalization that has shaped the broader Hong Kong culture. The film uses its female characters to illustrate the separation between traditional globalization and Low-End Globalization, and through the examination of both of these characters, the importance of Low-End Globalization as a method of understanding becomes elucidated. The film illustrates that Chungking Mansions exists as a heterotopic space that is distinct from the traditional globalized culture of Hong Kong [11]. Mathews even going as far to describe it as “alien” [12].Hongying Wang argues that Hong Kong is a “world city”, existing as an environment that can foster cultural connections across the entire world [13]. She goes further to analyse the influence of specifically western globalisation and the effect it has had on Hong Kong, noting “Historically, Hong Kong is a place where East meets West” [14]. Whilst she is referencing Hong Kongs space as a world city in a broader context, Gordon Mathews goes deeper to analyse Chungking Mansions as a world space. He notes that upon entering Chungking Mansions as a tourist, you would see “a line of every different skin colour waiting for the elevator” [15].
In reference to the divide between anglophone and native Hong Kong residence, Wang introduces the idea of “new localism” [16]. She argues the local culture is bifurcated between a culture that is influenced by the remnants of early colonialism, and the frequency of trade leading to an anglophone culture, and a second form of localism, that is more for the native culture of Hong Kong. “New localism” is important for understanding Hong Kong, but in relation to Chungking Express, I would argue that in analysing Chungking Express, it’s necessary for new localism to take a different form. Rather than the two localism being separated by anglophone and native Hong Kong, I would argue it’s more effective to engage two localisms, one born of traditional globalization (and its broader importance in shaping Hong Kong) and one born of Low-End Globalization (The type of trade specific to Chungking Mansions). The “New Localism” in this instance, would therefore be focused on the interactions and identities shaped by Low-End Globalization.
Therefore, Chungking Mansions occupies a unique spot in this bifurcated localism, being a non-provincial area influenced by trade from the developing world but also being completely separate from the initial roots of colonial globalism in Hong Kong. Ackbar Abbas notes that Hong Kong “has no pre-colonial history”, indicating that these forms of localism stem from the initial influx of colonialism [17]. Chungking Express engages with this concept of localism in the opposite direction; rather than the localism formed from anglophone influences, the film instead focuses on the connection between the developing world and the local Hong Kong. These connections between parts of the developing world arise from the ease of entry into Hong Kong from the developing world and the power of China as a manufacturer [18]. However because of the steep economic boundary to live in the rest of Hong Kong, Chungking Mansions effectively becomes a funnel for South Asian business owners and asylum seekers, engaging with “new localism” brought about by Low-End Globalization. However, there is a deeper engagement with the way that contemporary Hong Kong is still implicated, engaging with western influences through the second story, and specifically Faye.
This pull and push between Low-End Globalization and traditional globalization is accentuated through Faye and her relationship with No.663. No. 663 starts the film in a relationship with a United Airlines Stewardess, and after breaking up with her begins to foster a relationship with Faye [19]. These two women are representative of both types of globalization present in the film, and Faye’s character provides a comment on the overbearing colonial influence present through western globalization. Ackbar notes that “colonialism takes one form in the era of imperialism, and a different paradoxical form in the era of globalisation”, supporting the notion that there is an inherent link between imperial presence and globalization, despite the fact they may present differently [20]. The United Airlines Stewardess shows the pervasion of American culture into spaces like Hong Kong through the iconography of her uniform. Whilst she is not present physically in No.663’s apartment, the American company she works for always is. She is representative of the broader Hong Kong, and the influence global economy has had on the city and the way expats have shaped the culture and environment. Faye, on the other hand, is a representation of locality in the eyes of No.663. From his perspective, she works for and participates in the local economy of Chungking Mansions. She too, occupies No.663’s apartment however unlike the uniform, which is a representation of the foreign, Faye existing in the apartment is representative of No.663’s change from infatuation with the foreign to infatuation with the local. This culminates in him taking over the Midnight Express Snack Bar at the end of the movie [21].
We as the audience however, come to understand that these two forms of localism cannot remain entirely separate. From the eyes of No.663 we understand Faye as a constant in his experience of Chungking Mansions, but in her own eyes, she is engaged in the Hong Kong shaped by traditional globalization just as much. Faye yearns to experience life beyond the microcosm of Chungking Mansions, listening to the song “California Dreaming” throughout the majority of the film, illustrating the pervasiveness of American culture through globalisation. Faye is a completely local woman, and yet she still engages with American culture, even going as far as to travel to California, showing the complexity of Hong Kongs place in a global and local sphere. Faye is shown to be a foil to the second female love interest, The Woman in the Blonde Wig. Faye shows interest in the western world, and illustrates the pervasiveness of traditional globalization, whereas The Woman in the Blonde Wig is a pure representation of “new localism” experiencing her local culture and forming her identity purely within the ecosystem of Chungking mansions.
The Woman in the Blonde Wig on the other hand is someone who thrives through Low-End Globalization. Throughout the first half of the film she is shown to be at the top of local economic control. She acts as the mediator between the developing world of South Asia, and the booming economy of contemporary Hong Kong. This connection between South Asian immigrants and Mainland Chinese is integral to the lifeblood of the Chungking Mansions ecosystem [22]. Whilst Faye can be understood as a representation of Hong Kong as a whole, due to her character showing interplay between the local and the global, The Woman in the Blonde Wig is perfectly representative of Chungking Mansions, illustrating the connections that are unique to Low-End Globalization, and acting as a representation of Chungking Mansions as an ecosystem. Her interactions with He Qi Wu, and his attempts to greet her in multiple languages such as Cantonese, Japanese and even English give an indication to the Pan-Asiatic nature of Hong Kong, and her responding solely to the Mandarin places her identity in the broader scape of Hong Kong. She is directly responsible for some of the illegal trade happening in Hong Kong, and her use of Mandarin rather than Cantonese illustrates the influence Chinese manufacturing has on the process of development in Hong Kong.
The film makes note to explore the impact of westernization on broader Hong Kong culture with the California restaurant where No.663 waits for Faye. This is a further example of the “New Localism” making itself present even in Chungking mansions. Faye’s infatuation with the west comes from being a Hong Kong local, and whilst Chungking Mansions exists rather separately from the rest of Hong Kong, it is still present in the local culture. The “California Restaurant” is indicative of the initial two mindsets we find the characters in. No.663 wants to stay local, even remarking earlier in the film that he is relatively indifferent to travel, saying “I don’t really mind one way or the other” [23]. He experiences international culture through the heterotopia that is Chungking Mansions. Faye on the other hand, exhibits local tendencies but also experiences Hong Kong as a global economy. No.663 believes Faye is a representation of locality, however Faye herself yearns for global travel. The “California restaurant” at the end of the film is representative of these two divergent mindsets, the local Hong Kong which is a very Pan-Asian environment thanks to low-end trade, and the broader, global Hong Kong that is a worldwide city. Only through the exploration of these dynamics can we fully understand Hong Kongs place, both as a local and as a global economy. Upon returning from her trip to California, remarks that it is “nothing special” [24]. Faye’s change in mindset illustrates that anything that globalization can provide on a larger scale, is provided more intimately on a smaller scale, as she returns to Chungking Mansions and rekindles a form of her relationship with No.663. No.663 choosing Faye at the end of the movie is therefore representative of a reconciliation between the local and the global.
Both of these interactions show the importance of Low-End Globalization as a method of understanding. Without the interplay between traditional globalization and Low-End Globalization, and the importance of localism in the forming of identity, Faye as a character, and therefore the implications and importance of her social reality could not be fully understood. She has a place as both a local and a global character, illustrating the impact of colonialism in forming global economies, but also illustrating the importance of understanding local economies and the equally important social realities in Chungking Mansions.
Low-End Globalisation encapsulated the multi-faceted nature of Inter-Asian studies through the use of space.
Gordon Matthews refers to the multifaceted nature of globalization through the implementation of Arjun Appadurai and the anthropological nature of “scapes” [25]. Appadurai’s approach attempts to “conceptualise the global from the perspective of the local” [26]. Chungking Express functions similar in its approach, as mentioned earlier conceptualising the nature of Hong Kong’s place in global economies through the analysis of local trade an economy. Under Appadurai’s definitions, Chungking Mansions can be considered both ethnoscape and financescape, as Mathews notes that the place is home to a large degree of asylum seekers and nomadic travellers, as well as small retailers and restaurants [27]. Appadurai argues that the scapes that result in globalization are isomorphic; social and economic development accelerate at different rates and a holistic view of a society can be achieved by assessing the disjunctions between these scapes. However Chungking Express illustrates that these aspects of local society are inextricably linked in Chungking Mansions. For example, Police officer He Qi Wu quantifies his relationship through the physical purchase of cans of pineapple. The social connections that inform his life are directly influenced by his material reality, him noting that “I bought a can of pineapples with sell-by date May 1st […] If May doesn’t change her mind by the time I’ve bought 30 cans, our love will expire” [28]. This illustration of the link between economic processes and social relationships is similar to the analysis found through the implementation of Low-End Globalization. The smaller scale trade within the local informs the social changes. The expiring of the pineapple informs He Qi Wu’s meeting of the Woman in the Blonde Wig. Similarly, the Woman with the Blonde Wig has to complete her drug smuggling operation by the same date. Both of their economic commitments lead to them meeting each other. Their interactions at the bar, and their newfound social connections are directly informed by Low-End Globalization.
Sergio Fielder, in a review of Appadurai’s Modernity at Large argues that this approach to cultural connection allows for a post-national vision [29]. Kardonis defines post-national as a challenge to established practices through immigration and global capitalism, creating an “alternative political practices and social action in globalized environments” [30]. Chungking Mansions is a physical representation of this process, as the Pan-Asiatic nature and illegal foundation of large parts of their local economy show a departure from traditional processes indicative of a nation state. Chungking mansions is post-national in the sense that the policing of trade and the monitoring of economic transactions is not inherent to the nation state, but to economic brokers in a higher position of class hierarchy. Chungking Express allows us to explore this class hierarchy through The Woman in the Blonde Wig.
Chungking Mansions is shown throughout the film to exist as a post-national space. It is a physical representation of Hong-Kongs economy being extended beyond the bounds of what can be called “national”, instead incorporating a large degree of foreign labour and imported products from global powerhouses like China. The film, Chungking Express, explores the Low-End side of post-national globalization, rather than traditional labour from expats and legal immigrants, the film instead places the emphasis on irregular labour from asylum seekers and illegal immigrants. This shows the way in which post-nationalism and Low-End Globalization coincide. Furthermore, its post national quality is accentuated due to the illegal nature of the trade functioning outside of the traditional bounds of a national economy, as well as the characters being of different upbringings. Even being in positions of hierarchical power as a police officer, He Qi Wu is characterised by his Pan-Asiatic nature. His internal narration in Mandarin and his external dialogue in Cantonese show the fluctuating nature of Hong Kong as a nation state and emphasises the post-national nature of Chungking Mansions. However the diversity of business within Chungking Mansions creates an environment where the national economy of Hong Kong is less important than the flow of culture in global economies. The midnight express snack bar, the California restaurant, the Indian tailor and the variety of electronic stores are indicative of a post-national economy informed by the flow of immigration and the contribution of migrants and asylum seekers. Only through the analysis of Low-End Globalization can we uncover the hierarchies and place Chungking Mansions as a post-national environment. Appadurai’s approach to understanding globalization as economic processes informing social realities can be extended to a post-national context; as the economy grows beyond a national framework and includes more immigrant labour, so too does a social culture form that is creolised [31]. In the case of Chungking Express, we see this through the background extras and businesses as mentioned earlier. The film shows us this understanding of traditional globalization can be extended to Low-End Globalization as well through the exploration of trade hierarchies and the social realities brought about by irregular labour. This allows for the placement of Chungking Mansions as a post-national environment, both socially and economically.
Conclusion
Chungking Express and the characters within the film, act as a vehicle to establish and assess the heterotopic space known as Chungking Mansions. Through the nature of cash-in-hand, quasi legal transactions, and the economic borders that prevent immigrants from moving beyond its walls, Chungking Mansions becomes an ideal ethnoscape for exploring the relationships that form between areas of developing South Asia, and the more economically prosperous East Asia. As a method of understanding, Low-End Globalization provides a complete and holistic understanding of the social realities present within such a multicultural space, not only being a way to assess the economic realities, but also to assess the social realities from an anthropological lens. Due to the previous focus of Inter-Asian studies on larger port cities like Canton and Shanghai, focusing on larger scale economic trade with the west, Low-End Globalization should be the direction that Inter-Asian studies takes due to its decentralization of the west through the use of “new localism”, and its all-encompassing approach to Pan-Asiatic interconnectedness.
[1] Gordon Mathews: “Chungking Mansions: A Centre for Low-End Globalization”, Ethnology Vo. 46, 2007, p. 170.
[2] Ibid p. 170
[3] Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011), p. 21
[4] Gordon Mathews: “Chungking Mansions: A Centre for Low-End Globalization”, Ethnology Vo. 46, 2007, p. 171.
[5] Ibid p. 172
[6] Chungking Express dir. Wong Kar-Wai (Hong Kong,1994)
[7] Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011), p. 30.
[8] Ibid
[9] Gordon Mathews: “Chungking Mansions: A Centre for Low-End Globalization”, Ethnology Vol. 46, 2007, p. 177.
[10] Ackbar Abbas, “Wong Kar-Wai: Hong Kong Filmmaker”, Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance (1997), p.55.
[11] Ibid. p.54
[12] Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011), p. 22.
[13] Hongying Wang, “HONG KONG AND GLOBILIZATION”, Asian Perspective, Vol. 23, No.4, Special Issue on Globalization in East Asia (1999), p. 144
[14] Ibid p.153
[15] Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011) p. 21.
[16] Hongying Wang, “HONG KONG AND GLOBILIZATION”, Asian Perspective, Vol. 23, No.4, Special Issue on Globalization in East Asia (1999), p. 154
[17] Ackbar Abbas, “Introduction”, Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance (1997), p.2.
[18] Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011), p. 27.
[19] Chungking Express dir. Wong Kar-Wai (Hong Kong,1994)
[20] Ackbar Abbas, “Introduction”, Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance (1997), p.2.
[21] Chungking Express dir. Wong Kar-Wai (Hong Kong,1994)
[22] Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011), p.22.
[23] Chungking Express dir. Wong Kar-Wai (Hong Kong,1994)
[24] Chungking Express dir. Wong Kar-Wai (Hong Kong,1994)
[25] Gordon Mathews: “Chungking Mansions: A Centre for Low-End Globalization”, Ethnology Vol. 46, 2007, p. 178
[26] Sergio Fielder, “Reviewed Work: Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization by Arjun Appadurai”, Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, Vol.46, No.2, (2002), p.164.
[27] Ibid p.164 ; Gordon Mathews, Ghetto at the Centre of the World: Chungking Mansions (2011), p.24.
[28] Chungking Express dir. Wong Kar-Wai (Hong Kong,1994)
[29] Sergio Fielder, “Reviewed Work: Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization by Arjun Appadurai”, Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, Vol.46, No.2, (2002), p.165.
[30] Kostas Maronitis, “Postnationalism”, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, John Wiley & Sons, (2020), p.1.
[31] Sergio Fielder, “Reviewed Work: Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization by Arjun Appadurai”, Social Analysis: The International Journal of Anthropology, Vol.46, No.2, (2002), p.165.